Strategic Patience (part 2 of 2)
The Conflict between Wu and Yue during the late Spring and Autumn Period
The Tao does not take sides; it gives birth to both good and evil.
A man with outward courage dares to die; a man with inner courage dares to live.1
Part one of this series ends with the death of King Helu in the aftermath of his ill-fated invasion of Yue in 496 BC. He passed the throne to his son, King Fuchai of Wu (r. 495 - 473 BC). On his death bed, King Helu implored Prime Minister Wu Zixu to serve his son. Turning to his son, he warned, “Do not ever forget that King Goujian of Yue was responsible for my death.”
King Goujian of Yue & King Fuchai of Wu
In 496 BC, King Yunchang of Yue died. His son ascended the throne with the title of King Goujian of Yue (r. 496 - 465 BC). He successfully repelled an invasion from Wu and managed to kill King Helu. An uneasy truce then began between the States of Wu and Yue. Both states carried out reforms to upgrade their capabilities in preparation for future opportunities. Prime Minister Wu Zixu assigned a waker for the young King Fuchai.
“Do not ever forget that King Goujian of Yue was responsible for the death of your father,” the waker cried out every morning prior to the first ray of sunlight appearing on the distant horizon. Prompted by this daily cry, King Goujian would wake up, prepare himself, and report to his office where the faithful Wu Zixu would greet him. They went on to discuss the issues of the day and map out their daily activities, under candlelight. This happened every day until one day in the year 494 BC.
In the spring of 494 BC, King Goujian convened his court to explore a preemptive invasion of Wu. Prime Minister Fan Li advised caution.
“Your Majesty, I recommend waiting for better opportunity. The State of Wu is as strong as ever under the wise and watchful counsel of Wu Zixu.”
King Goujian replied, “Do not underestimate our own strength. Our state defeated Wu while observing and performing funeral rituals for my father, King Yunchang, two years ago.”
“We previously routed Wu forces due to our moral strength. We defended our homeland, our way of life, and our cultural heritage at the time. Wu Zixu recognized this fact and warned King Helu against the invasion,” Fan Li admonished.
King Goujian dismissed Fan Li’s concern and impatiently attacked Wu. The State of Yue was dealt a decisive blow at Fujiao in 494 BC.2 King Goujian, his officials, and a remnant of about five thousand soldiers were cornered and surrounded on Mount Kuaiji by Wu forces. Running out of foods and water, King Goujian resolved to fight to the death. However, his advisors, including Fan Li and Wen Zhong, exhorted him to swallow his pride and to accept the humiliations.
Fan Li supplicated King Goujian, “Where there is life, there is hope. Your Majesty should try to end this predicament without further loss of life. A ceasefire should be obtained at all costs, including humiliations, for the sake of Yue.”
After multiple discussions, the king followed the advice of Fan Li. Goujian volunteered to be a personal slave to King Fuchai, in exchange for the latter’s promise to spare Yue and its people of destruction. Fan Li also wisely bribed Bo Pi, the advisor of King Fuchai, to ensure his promotion of Guojian proposal in the Wu court. King Fuchai accepted the terms and withdrew Wu forces from Yue territory. Shortly later, King Goujian departed from his court. Wen Zhong was entrusted with the internal affairs of Yue during the absence of Goujian. Meanwhile, Guojian, his wife, and former prime minister Fan Li traveled to Wu to serve King Fuchai.
Upon reaching the Wu capital and being brought into the presence of its king, Goujian immediately knelt to the ground and performed a ketou3 before King Fuchai. He acknowledged the shame he felt over his contemptible decision to invade Wu. The former king expressed his profound gratitude to King Fuchai for sparing his life and permitting him, as a lowly slave, to sweep the dirt from the king body. He also implored King Fuchai for forgiveness for his part in the death of the Wu king’s father.
Wu Zixu was terribly upset at this scene. He pleaded earnestly, “Your Majesty needs to execute Goujian on the spot. Do not ever forget that Goujian was responsible for the death of your father.”
The king advisor Bo Pi, who had been bribed by Wen Zhong, stepped forward and asserted, “Your Majesty, Prime Minister Wu Zixu is small-minded. The news of our victory has been spreading around the world. Your Majesty should aspire to be a hegemon and follow the example of the former Duke Huan of Qi who forgave his assassin, Guan Zhong, and proceeded to employ him as prime minister.4 Duke Huan later became a recognized hegemon among the states. Your Majesty should forgive Goujian and show the world how benevolent you are.”
“Then the other states would look up to you as the hegemon,” Bo Pi added.
Wu Zixu angrily thundered, “A tiger would crouch before it pounces on its victim. Goujian kowtows in front of you in preparation for his vengeance.” He repeated emotionally, “Do not ever forget Goujian was responsible for the death of your father.”
King Fuchai was delighted to hear, from his advisor Bo Pi, that he could and should aspire to hegemony. He forbade any further discussion about executing Goujian and ordered the latter to be his carriage driver, to tend his horses, and to perform other household duties. Meanwhile, Goujian’s wife and Fan Li were commanded to assist Goujian in performing his duties.
Over the next three years, Goujian quietly served King Fuchai by cleaning the toilets, making the beds, sweeping the floor, and so forth during the days. When nights came, Goujian, often with tears on his face, was comforted by his wife and former prime minister Fan Li. On many of those sleepless nights, Mou Shi, the wife of Goujian, would sing quietly,
“You are the wind.
I am the sand.
In a single embrace,
we dance on this night,
and the next.
You are the wind.
I am the sand.
In a single embrace,
we dance here in Wu,
and will settle back in Yue.”
Then an opportunity presented itself.
King Fuchai developed a gastrointestinal illness, around the year 489 BC. His symptoms persisted even after multiple courses of treatment by the court physician. During those days, Goujian diligently cleaned his master’s toilets and body. At nights, he described what had transpired during the day to Fan Li. One night, Fan Li devised a course of action and informed Goujian. They fined tune the plan further over the next few days. Goujian then requested a formal audience with King Fuchai and his court.
On that fateful day, Goujian performed a ketou in the presence of King Fuchai, saying, “Your Majesty, please allow me, your humble slave, to diagnose and treat your malady.” He proceeded to explain that he had learned to diagnose gastrointestinal illness by tasting urine and stool samples. King Fuchai was shocked at the unexpected request. He turned to his queen, his children, and various ministers to inquire whether they would taste his excrements. Unsurprisingly, no one would. The king then turned to Goujian and declared, “You would be the closest, and the most loyal person to me, if you were to actually do it.”
It just happened that King Fuchai had a bowel movement earlier and the contents were still in a bucket nearby. A guard rushed to bring back the bucket and gave it to Goujian. Goujian then took a scoop of stool and urine sample, and placed it in his mouth. His oral muscles moved deliberately and thoughtfully. His tongue visibly pushed the sample in his mouth around, showing that he was savoring the sample and deciphering its meaning. He walked back and forth in the room, with wrinkles on his forehead, effortfully trying to make a medical diagnosis and appropriate treatment.
Goujian eating King Fuchai’s excrements5
He then performed another ketou and said, “Congratulations, My Lord. Your illness should improve in about two fortnights. Additionally, its resolution can be quickened with a sample of my herbs.” He then went on to explain the sweet and sour taste of the stool signified the illness had turned a corner. He requested permission to leave and returned with some herbs. He cooked the herbs in front of King Fuchai, and tasted a sample of it to prove that it wasn’t poison. He then poured the drink into a cup for his master. King Fuchai approvingly drank the whole cup. For the next couple of weeks, Goujian prepared that drink three times a day. King Fuchai’s symptoms began to improve and resolved by the end of the week. Appreciative of Goujian’s action, King Fuchai started to ponder about releasing the former from his duties. Perhaps, he even considered letting Goujian return to Yue. However, Wu Zixu, the prime minister, was vehemently opposed to those ideas.
“Your Majesty. Goujian needs to be executed. He is a man of great patience. I am afraid that he would destroy the State of Wu,” admonished Wu Zixu. “Goujian drank your urine so that he can drink your blood. He ate your excrements so that he can eat your liver,” Wu Zixu excitedly exclaimed.
“I have tolerated enough nonsense from you. Goujian is a loyal and obedient subject. And even if he weren’t, what would his execution signal to people from distant land? They would think that I am ungrateful and cruel, especially after what Goujian had done for me,” replied King Fuchai.
Wen Zhong also wisely bribed Bo Pi, the advisor to King Fuchai. Bo Pi urged King Fuchai to show benevolence and leniency to Goujian, in order to demonstrate to other states that he was worthy of being a hegemon.
King Fuchai subsequently forced Wu Zixu to commit suicide after the latter had attempted to assassinate Goujian.
Goujian was subsequently pardoned and released back to Yue.
Goujian, Mou Shi, and Fan Li were glad to return to Yue. Goujian, in particular, cried when he crossed the border on the way home. There they were greeted by Wen Zhong, who had ruled Yue in place of King Goujian. Over the next seven years, King Guojian sent an annual tribute to King Fuchai. Wen Zhong then persuaded King Goujian to pursue these policies:
build temples and clarify the laws to maintain peace and harmony among the Yue people
provide valuable and expensive goods to King Fuchai and use large quantities of gold, jade, silk to curry favor to Wu’s officials, especially Bo Pi
buy off Wu officials who are good at flattery to weaken Wu’s defenses against attack
purchase fodder and grain from Wu at high price to debilitate its population
send skilled craftsmen and artisans and high-quality wood to Wu to enable it to construct palaces and towers, burdening its population
embolden enemy officials who dare to voice outspoken criticism to their ruler’s face so that the ruler will force them to commit suicide
train the king’s own soldiers well so that they are ready to attack when the enemy forces have weakened
During his stay in Wu, Prime Minister Fan Li recognized that King Fuchai was a womanizer. Therefore, he traveled all over Yue and discovered Xi Shi and Zheng Dan. Xi Shi was especially known for her exceptional beauty. Her delicate grace is reputed to have been so extraordinary that, as she leaned over a balcony to observe fish in a pond, the fish were allegedly mesmerized to the extent that they momentarily ceased swimming and descended to the bottom. This narrative serves as the origin of the first two characters of the Chinese idiom 沉魚落雁, 閉月羞花 (pinyin: chényú luòyàn, bìyuè xiūhuā). This idiom is commonly used to compliment a woman's beauty, symbolizing that her allure is so captivating that it can cause fish to submerge, birds to descend, the moon to hide, and flowers to blush. (Literal translation: 'fish dive, goose fall; moon hide, flower shame').6
Xi Shi as depicted in the album Gathering Gems of Beauty (畫麗珠萃秀)
After three years of training, Fan Li personally transformed Xi Shi, from a rural girl into a learned court lady, good at drawing, calligraphy and chess. She was also well-versed in history, geography, and philosophy. More importantly, she was willing to sacrifice herself for the State of Yue. Fan Li himself escorted the ladies to Wu and presented them to King Fuchai. Enchanted by the beauty of Xi Shi, King Fuchai became wholly preoccupied with her presence, diverting his attention from matters of state. Gradually, he began to forsake his political responsibilities to spend more leisure time with Xi Shi. He often took her by carriage to the city market square, where he would boast to those around him about winning the heart of the most beautiful woman in the world. To better accommodate Xi Shi, the king constructed the Guanwa Palace (Palace of Beautiful Women) within an imperial park situated on the slopes of Lingyan Hill, near modern Suzhou. In the wake of these events, the power and influence of the Wu kingdom began to wane.
Meanwhile, while ruling his kingdom, King Goujian never relished kingly riches, but instead ate food suited for peasants, as well as forcing himself to taste bile, in order to remember his humiliations while serving King Fuchai. The second half of a Chinese idiom, wòxīn-chángdǎn (臥薪嚐膽, "sleeping on sticks and tasting gall"), refers to Goujian's perseverance.7
In the year 473 BC, King Goujian seized the opportunity to launch a decisive offensive against Wu, resulting in the complete and utter defeat of the Wu army. King Fuchai, overwhelmed with remorse for disregarding the counsel of Wu Zixu, took his own life.
Legend has it that Fuchai asked to be a slave for King Goujian. However, the latter had Fuchai commit suicide and said, “You wrongly executed your loyal subject, Wu Zixu. I hereby punish you on his behalf.” King Goujian also had Bo Pi, the former advisor of Fuchai, executed. King Goujian then visited the tomb of Wu Zixu. There, the king performed a ketou and asked for forgiveness.
Modern ramification of strategic patience
Importance of assessing and recognizing the foundation of oneself and that of the opponent. In part one, the State of Wu invaded the State of Chu and sacked its capital, Ying, in 506 BC. I hinted that Chu had been able to recover and bounce back. In part two, Yue conquered Wu and completely annexed it in 473 BC. However, Yue later declined and became a minor state after the death of King Goujian. It was eventually partitioned by Chu and Qi in 333 BC. Of course, this chain of events was complicated and involved many twists and turns. In retrospect, I believe Chu had a better foundation, in comparison to Wu and Yue, due to its proximity to the center of Chinese civilization. It had greater natural and human resources. Individuals, no matter how great they were, like Sun Tzu and Wu Zixu in the case of Wu, and Fan Li and Wen Zhong in the case of Yue, can indeed change the trajectory of a state. But for the new trajectory to endure and last, time is an especially important ingredient. The foundation of the state, be it economic, political, and social, is dependent on and partly shaped by the geography of the state in question. Some recent news headlines made me question the strategic thoughts of certain people. For instance,
“Little Estonia is no longer afraid of the Russian Bear.”8 One does need to keep in mind that Estonia has a population of less than 1.5 million, of which a little more than 20% identified as ethnically Russian. I was not sure if I read a political analysis or a political comedy.
In part one of this series and the article about my fictional meeting with Prime Minister Narendra Modi, I emphasized the cyclical nature of life. Sun Tzu recommended Wu Zixu to retire from politics after their victorious entry into Ying, the capital of Chu. However, the latter did not follow Sun Tzu’s recommendation. Wu Zixu later was forced to commit suicide by King Fuchai. After helping King Goujian to conquer Wu, Fan Li likewise retired from politics. He advised Wen Zhong to do the same. Wen Zhong declined and was later forced to commit suicide by King Fuchai. These stories remind me of Proverbs 16:18, “Pride goes before destruction, a haughty spirit before a fall.” Wu Zixu and Wen Zhong were not proud. They became victims of proud men whom they had helped to achieve certain goals.
Geopolitical changes during the Spring and Autumn period led to greater introspection and self-reflection, giving rise to Confucian ideas. Confucius himself did not try to produce any new ideas - he just looked back to history to find lessons for his people. In analogous way, I have a feeling that politics would become more local and regional in the foreseeable future, characterized by populist ideas to serve the local electorates. I wrote about it in Goodbye Yellow Brick Road,
I should have stayed in the land of strength and valor. (Valencia literally means strength and valor).
I should have listened to my old Lady. (Allusion to the Virgin Mary of Christianity, the dominant religion of Spain).
Back to the red carnations in the fields, (Red carnation is national flower of Spain).
struggling with the fighting bulls. (Traditional blood sport of Spain).
It’ll take you a couple of Jenever and Lambic
to set you on your feet again (hinting that the person is leaving Brussels, capital of the European Union - Jenever and Lambic are Belgian beers).
I would like to end this series with a quote from Sun Tzu.
Know the enemy and know yourself in a hundred battles you will never be in peril. When you are ignorant of the enemy but know yourself, your chances of winning or losing are equal. If ignorant both of your enemy and of yourself, you are certain in every battle to be in peril.
Thank you for reading. Please subscribe and share my post, if you find this article informative. I have decided to dedicate a portion of my time and energy to writing on this substack, hoping to spread the message of caution, prudence, and watchfulness in this chaotic period. We do the part that we can.
Strategic Patience (part 1 of 2)
We also have joy with our troubles, because we know that these troubles produce patience. And patience produces character, and character produces hope. Romans 5: 3-5.
Lao Tzu’s Tao Te Ching.
https://welcometochina.com.au/china-at-war-from-ancient-times-to-the-modern-day-6180.html
Also koutou, a ubiquitous Chinese ritual, during Imperial China, denoting respect for a superior and involving knocking the head on the ground while in a kneeling position; the origin of the English word kowtow.
Duke Huan of Qi (r. 685 - 643 BC) appointed Guan Zhong, who had attempted to assassinate the duke, as prime minister. He was recognized as one of the hegemons of the Spring and Autumn period.
https://content.ucpress.edu/chapters/11149.ch01.pdf
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xi_Shi
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Goujian
https://thehill.com/opinion/international/4907633-little-estonia-is-no-longer-afraid-of-the-russian-bear/
I did not know that suicide was a common punishment/practice in China, reminiscent of Japanese seppuko. Might be worth an article especially if you can reach back into that time and explain how it was perceived and why someone would submit to the command.
Thanks for your article.